Animals, Wakes, and Funerals

A glimpse into the sadder side of animal behavior reveals some heartwarming tendencies.

Recently, there have been an increasing number of studies focusing on the burgeoning subject of animals’ emotions. On the emotional spectrum, animals have been observed to display everything from jovial glee to extreme sadness. Bonobos celebrate (albeit a tad sodomitically) the finding of food, and mourn the loss of their children (heart wrenchingly carrying lifeless infants for days). In my own experiences, I will never forget seeing a squirrel scurry over to what I imagine had been his companion, now dead after being struck by a car. Anecdotal evidence aside, a popular Youtube video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8sOw3mCz4Oc) shows a similar situation. Although his friend lies dead, a loyal squirrel remains by his side, defending his body from leering crows.

                This behavior reveals a side of the animal world that, until recently, we were too humanly proud to recognize. Complex emotional structures, often attributed only to humans and “higher ranking” animals, have now been recorded on video in organisms as lowly as the common tree squirrel. Similar tendencies have been noted in a litany of other animal species. A brief compendium: geese become visually distressed, with sunken eyes and a drooping posture, after the loss of a partner; sea lions wail in emphatic distress as killer whales prey on their young; dolphins struggle to save infants even after they are long dead; chimpanzees watch in silent reverence as researchers carry off an elder ape to be buried; elephant families try vainly to rouse slain relatives; polar bears paw at the bloody remains of their felled children; the list is exhausting and poignant – these animals feel emotional pain on a level comparable to our own.

                Joyce Poole, as a longtime observer of elephants in Kenya, insists that what she has seen are real emotions. It goes beyond curiosity of why a fellow animal stops moving, and it’s more than a projection of our own emotions. When they come upon a corpse of one of their own, elephants become “highly agitated and investigate them with their trunks and feet”. Even long dead elephants, that remain only skeletally, also capture passing elephants’ attention. When presented with a variety of bones, elephants have been able to pick their relatives out from the bunch. Perhaps as a form of respect or even extended grief, these animals seem to pay respects even to those who have been gone for months or years.

                A lot of this behavior may seem compassionately human. But when we remember that we were not always the highly evolved, intelligent and complex creatures we are today, it makes a lot of sense. As organisms that inhabit earth, we all share a heritage from a long passed, primordial sea. The behavior observed in animals may prove that, while many things in this world our manmade, much of our emotions and mannerisms are purely biological. 

The Oxygen Paradox

How the very thing that keeps us alive is also trying to kill us. 

Human beings, as well as many of Earth’s creatures, are aerobic in nature.  To maintain active muscles, our cells require a copious amount of oxygen; the same principle applies to our most vital organ, the brain, down to our most intricate of capillaries. Oxygen is an essential element in energy metabolization, gas exchange, and almost every other bodily process.  Aside from anaerobic species, life truly would not persist without oxygen. Yet, an extreme irony exists in the constant biological processes of our bodies. Oxygen undergoes changes as it is utilized in our sundry biological pathways, and these changes tend to transform what is regularly a vital molecule into dangerously poisonous agents known as “Reactive Oxygen Species”.

One of the most common of these Species is superoxide, a malformed version of oxygen produced during an oxygen molecule’s passage through a cell’s mitochondria. Mitochondria are found within each of our cells, and are responsible for transforming food into usable cellular energy. As oxygen proceeds through these mitochondrial pathways, it becomes partially reduced; molecules become reduced by acquiring an extra electron. In this case, oxygen has gained an electron, transforming it into the molecule superoxide. This extra, unpaired electron changes the behavior of the molecule as it searches for another electron to bind to. Superoxide, with its unpaired electron, is therefore a radical element and will more readily bind to other radical elements.  

                This production of superoxide is natural in a normally operating aerobic metabolism. While most superoxide is produced internally (white blood cell activity also yields large amounts of superoxide), external sources such as cigarette smoke and exposure to ultraviolet light also cause increased levels of superoxide. As superoxide becomes present in our bodies, it is often converted into other “Reactive Oxygen Species”. ROS are known to cause damage to many biological molecules. Hydroxyl radicals, formed when superoxide is in the presence of iron or copper, can damage cell membranes and lipoproteins, particles that store cholesterol and fat. Proteins may be damaged by other ROS, causing structural changes and loss of enzyme activity. Another threat is made to our DNA which is estimated to sustain 10,000 “oxidative hits” per day. Although DNA repair enzymes can reverse much of the damage, their success rate is not perfect. Lesions accrued by ROS cause mutations that accumulate with age and may contribute to cancer. ROS damage is also implicated in heart disease and degenerative diseases, such as atherosclerosis.

                Fortunately, nature has provided a way to prevent damage caused by these Reactive Oxygen Species. Antioxidants from our diet collect ROS before they cause damage. Inside our cells, antioxidant enzymes scavenge for harmful radicals and convert them into less threatening species. The existence of these evolved enzymes is considerable proof towards the threat of oxidative damage to cellular survival. Additional proof comes from a recent discovery that noted a defective antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase) in individuals with Lou Gehrig’s disease.

In blood and extracellular fluid, small, molecular antioxidants take up the job of their enzymatic counterparts. Molecular antioxidants may be lipid or water soluble, depending on where they operate in the body. Vitamin E is the most abundant of the lipid soluble antioxidants. Found mainly in nuts and seeds, vitamin E is vital protection against oxidation and has been found in studies to substantially reduce the risk of heart disease. Vitamins A and C also serve as antioxidants within the body, and may help prevent cancer, heart disease, and degenerative diseases. Because humans do not synthesize antioxidants naturally, it is important to maintain a diet that will supply them. These dietary antioxidants, found primarily in fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds, are the best protection against ROS; they are vital to protect the body’s biological molecules and to prevent age-related degenerative diseases. 

New-Age Slavery: Victims of Trafficking

Slavery has never been further from over.

The 1807 Slave Trade Act, the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, and the Union’s victory in the Civil War were all precursors to the definitive end of what is commonly thought of when referencing the age of slavery. But today, there are more people kept in bonds than ever before. Most are found in South Asia, where debt incurred from lenders forces men and women into labor --  sometimes for generations. But many modern slaves are sufferers of human trafficking, a criminal system that victimizes an estimated 2.5 million people worldwide. They are men and women, but predominantly children. They are people looking for a path to a better life, only to become exploited for someone else’s benefit.

            Geographically, human trafficking affects countries all over the world. While 127 countries report being a source of victims, a total 161 countries are involved either as source, transit, or destination countries; human trafficking is a human rights issue that affects regions both underdeveloped and industrialized. On dirty sidewalk streets, teenage girls wander looking for customers so they can bring money back to men they think love and care about them; pimps that beat them and take everything they earn. In America, corrupt Californian farmers give the promise of a better life to foreigners looking for a way to support their family; upon arrival, they are met with subhuman treatment and a pittance for pay. In Mexico, a young woman can’t find a way to pay for her ailing mother’s medical bills; she follows the words of a man who offers hope until she is an illegal immigrant working far from her home and family, where she has no protection for her rights or safety.

            Human trafficking has more of an impact than we will ever see with our own eyes. The victims are people that society has already left behind. Unseen and unheard, they fight to find their own way, but one day realize they’ve lost so much more than they ever had a chance to gain. Even when they look for a way out, freedom is hard to find. Most end up in illegal activities, or as illegal residents of foreign countries. They are fearful of reporting their situation. Traffickers are often associated with international criminal organizations, making them hard to find and prosecute. Potential witnesses are deterred from speaking out of fear for their and their family members’ lives. As trafficking increases in many parts of the world, it is important that everyone, public and official, becomes aware of the gravity of this crime against humanity.

            Many organizations exist for the sole purpose of educating people about human trafficking. Awareness is one of the best forms of prevention, and it is only with combined efforts that countries around the world will be able to reverse the rise of modern day slavery. Affected persons need to be able to reintegrate into society, and it is recommended that countries increase the availability of counseling for overcoming the fear, shame, and guilt that victims experience. Everyday, society loses a man, woman, or child, to the shadowy world of trafficking. With victim counts higher than ever before, now is the time for a new Emancipation Proclamation – one to end slavery for good. 

The Caffeine Conundrum

Note: the following was, quite appropriately, written in a coffee shop. 

In America, drowsiness is treated as an affliction. Americans seem to subscribe to the philosophy that work is done best early in the morning, or late at night (which is often more accurately termed as early in the morning, anyway). By harsh consequence, these times are also when people tend to be the most tired. So if it’s before the sunrise chasing commute, or in preparation for the midnight cram session, Americans turn in droves to the things that promise the pick-me-up they crave: beverages filled with the alkaloid trimethylxanthine, more commonly known as caffeine.

            What causes drowsiness in the first place? Like most physical responses, tiredness begins in the brain, where the binding of adenosine to specialized receptors causes eye droopage, fatigue, and the desire to put down the textbooks and go enjoy the cool side of the pillow. Enter caffeine, the Jesus of academia, which speeds up nerve cell activity where adenosine would slow it down. Caffeine inhibits the binding and subsequent effects of adenosine, put simply, because it looks like adenosine. At the chemical level, the two are so similar in structure that caffeine can bind to receptors that regularly accept adenosine. Since they are already occupied, the filled receptors will not take up adenosine and those sleepy symptoms dissolve with each finished page of your dissertation.

            What happens next is familiar to almost everyone. That cup of coffee, spot of tea, or liter of soda gives the user a feeling of heightened alertness and boosted energy. What’s actually happening is the brain entering into emergency situation mode. The presence of bonded caffeine activates the pituitary gland which responds in the same way as if the user were faced with a grizzly bear or accidentally cut their finger off when slicing potatoes. Hormones released from the stimulated pituitary gland trigger the release of adrenaline, the fight-or-flight hormone, from the adrenals. The body’s response to adrenaline is what gives caffeine its reputation as an energy booster; shortly after intake of caffeine, adrenaline causes the users heart rate to increase, his pupils and airways to dilate, his blood pressure to rise as blood vessels constrict, and his liver to release sugars into the bloodstream.

These effects begin almost immediately after caffeine ingestion, and are considered the short-term affects of caffeine. However, caffeine can have long-term effects as well, especially when consumed in large quantities and over an extended period of time. Of course, due to the frequency of consumption and the phenomenon of wildly exaggerated serving sizes in America, the long-term effects are just as notable as the short-term. Just 100mg of caffeine a day can lead to dependency and, with standard cups of coffee containing as much as 200mg of the drug, it can be terribly easy to fall into a caffeine addiction.

The threat of addiction is doubled by the other hormonal effect of caffeine, which is to increase dopamine levels in the brain. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that activates the pleasure center of the brain; it makes a person feel good. With adrenaline and dopamine working in combination, caffeine users experience an effect that they tend to not want to give up. This leads people to picking up the coffee pot when the first cup wears off. With the average American consuming 300-400mg of caffeine a day, this puts many consumers well into the range of addiction.

Caffeine addiction can be highly detrimental to an individual’s sleeping habits. The body requires about 12 hours to metabolize and remove caffeine, so any caffeinated beverages consumed in the afternoon will probably remain in the body well after the individual has gone to sleep. Of course, the presence of caffeine will make attaining sleep difficult, but even when a person does fall asleep, it is likely to be unsatisfying. The presence of caffeine in the bloodstream during sleep prevents the deep sleep that the body needs to awake feeling well rested. And so the cycle continues when an individual wakes up feeling tired, and pours themselves another cup of coffee.

As the most widely consumed drug in the country, caffeine is found in coffee, tea, soda, energy drinks, and even chocolate milk. It is found in certain painkillers, for its blood vessel constricting effect, and is used medically as a heart stimulant and a diuretic.  Although it is produced naturally by many plants, humans often take its use to unnatural extremes. Continued use may actually increase the number of adenosine receptors, prompting users to consume more and more to reach the desired effect. Discontinuing use, therefore, will increase the normal effects of adenosine, as more receptors are present to be filled; this contributes to the intensity of withdrawal symptoms a person may feel which includes increased tiredness and headaches.

The popularity of caffeinated beverages seems unlikely to decrease as society pivots itself on long work days and stressful careers. Caffeine is almost a requirement of the American lifestyle, a point that Dunkin’ Donuts clearly corroborates with their tagline: “America runs on Dunkin’”. 

Tuberific! The Life and Times of the Potato

Those potatoes boiling on your stove have a history like you wouldn’t believe.

The household potato, the treasured tuber, the savory spud; today, this vegetable is globally regarded as a nutritious and all-important food staple. The potato’s worldly fame was made even more apparent when the United Nations deemed 2008 the International Year of the Potato. But humanity’s love for the potato, which manifested most strangely in the invention of ‘Mr. Potato Head’[1], was not always so heartfelt. Just a few hundred years ago, potatoes were completely unknown to the inhabitants of North America, and, in many parts of Europe, were considered a commodity fit only for the lower class.
             Even before the potato’s advent outside the New World, the spud was being joyously consumed, copiously cultivated, and even worshipped by indigenous Peruvians. Atop the Andes Mountains of South America, where the potato found its beginnings, ancient pre-Inca societies discovered both its nutritional value and rugged durability. As the Incan Empire grew, it flourished on the wholesome longevity of potatoes. Incas were able to preserve potatoes to be used over an extended time, stashing them in concealed bins in case of war or famine[2]. They buried potatoes with their dead and, believing potatoes to have medicinal properties, rubbed the vegetables on the skin of the sick. These South Americans began cultivating potatoes some 7000 years ago, but it wasn’t until the 16^th century that Spanish conquistadores would introduce the potato to Europe.

Spanish explorers first set foot on Peru in search of gold. While potatoes are not gold, the Spaniards indeed found them fascinating and thus worth a notch in the notebook. Pedro de Cieza de Leon, whose name is only almost as exaggerated as his writing style, recorded the following:

 "...the potatoes, that they are of the roots similar to the tubercoli, supplies of one rind more or little hard; when they come bubbled they become to hold like the cooked chestnuts."

Perhaps de Leon was just too overcome by the prospect of his potatoes becoming bubbled, but it wasn’t until Gonzalo Jiminez de Quesada arrived on the Peruvian frontier, in 1565, that potatoes found their passage eastward. And although the Spanish were simply incorrect when declaring the newfound thing a truffle, they were correct in recognizing the potato as a preventer of scurvy[3]. Still, the potato was not even close to a place in high class society. Over the next three decades, the potato spread throughout Europe, although more as a specimen for study than as a side dish, and was kept hesitantly from dinner plates by both fact and fiction.

To rise to any amount of popularity, the potato was forced to overcome the challenges of Europe’s ingrained eating habits, its reputation as a food for the lower class, and its relationship to poisonous plants. The latter hardship was brought to light in the banquet hall of Queen Elizabeth I, where the chefs, seemingly uneducated in the art of potato cooking, tossed out the lumpy tubers and served, instead, a dish of boiled stems and leaves, which happened to be poisonous[4]. All who attended turned promptly ill and the potato was banned from the court. In France, word of the potato’s ill-effects became slightly exaggerated, as the potato was accused of causing leprosy, syphilis, narcosis, sterility, and rampant sexuality. Ironically, some believed that potatoes destroyed the soil where they grew, and certain towns banned them outright. Meanwhile, in Russia, the Orthodox Church rejected potatoes completely since they were not mentioned in the Bible.            

Eventually, the potato’s major breakthrough came in Ireland[5] during the 1780’s. At last, the vegetable was recognized for its potential as an abundant, nutritious food. An acre of potatoes could produce more food than an acre of corn or wheat, and all while providing most of a diet’s necessary vitamins. Of course, Ireland’s thrice daily potato celebration was brought to a crashing halt when a fungus sparked the infamous Irish Potato Famine. By 1852, Ireland’s population had been reduced 25% by either starvation or emigration. Still, the successful years the Irish gained from potato farming were a testament to the potato’s fecundity.

Potatoes made their way back across the Atlantic to North America in the 1620s. Spreading slowly throughout the colonies in limited qualities, it wasn’t until Thomas Jefferson served them at the White House that potato prevalence began a steady uprise. Backed by a continual influx of potato-loving, Irish immigration, potatoes were soon commonly seen all across the nation. The United States is also responsible for the popularization of the “potato chip”, since it was invented in the classic American style: by accident and with bad manners. When a customer rejected his serving of potatoes for being too thick, George Crum, head chef of a restaurant in Saratoga Springs, became enraged. He cut the potatoes outrageously thin, fried them in hot oil, and covered them in salt before sending them back to the customer who, to Crum’s amazement, found them delectable. Potato chips have been an American craze ever since, as sales thrive even during economic recession.  

Today, it’s more difficult to find someone who hasn’t enjoyed a potato than someone who has. An estimated 19,500,000 hectares around the world are used for growing potatoes, and China is now the biggest potato producer; truly, potatoes have spread clear to the other side of the world. In 1995, the potato became the first vegetable to be grown in space, and it is expected that the potato will be ideal for growth and consumption during long-term space missions of the future. Potatoes can be found growing on the arid tips of mountains, all the way to damp island forests. They are universal, delicious, and for some peoples, indispensable. They are as varied as they are tubular, with over 5000[6] extant varieties. With all those potatoes in the world, and so many ways to eat them, a person would be hard pressed to experience them all. But let it be known that if someone were to undertake such a mission, they would be sure to enjoy it – as long as they stayed away from the green bits.

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[1] Although still produced and sold successfully, Mr. Potato Head has come just about as far as actual potatoes. George Lerner, inventor of the original Mr. Potato Head in 1952, designed kits that included various body parts but required a real potato for face making fun. Even when production was handed over to the Hasbro toy company, instructions were included that suggested the gouging of real vegetables, and a plastic potato wasn’t added to the kit until 1964. 

[2] The Incas were the first to develop a freeze-drying process to store potatoes as “chuñu”. After freezing, the potatoes were trampled and mashed by foot, and then were left in the sunlight to dry completely. Stored this way whole or ground into flour, chuñu could last for up to ten years without rot or waste.

[3] Potatoes are actually incredible sources of vitamin C. According to the USDA, a one cup serving size of potatoes with skin can provide up to 50% of the daily value for vitamin C. Compare this to one cup serving sizes of oranges (160%), apples (10%), and pears (35%).

[4] As a member of the nightshade family, potato leaves and stems are, indeed, poisonous. But the potential dangers of this considerably humble plant don’t stop there. If left too long in the light, potato skin begins to appear green which reveals the accumulation of solanine. Solanine causes a potato to taste bitter and can cause diarrhea and vomiting in humans.

[5] A similar boost in potato popularity was to be seen in France, where Parmentier, a chemist and botanist, cleverly devised a way to increase potato acceptance. Parmentier planted 100 acres worth of potatoes and kept them heavily guarded until local farmers assumed the crop, while highly watched, was also highly valuable. One night, Parmentier left the guards off duty and, sure enough, opportunists swooped in to confiscate the potatoes and plant them on their own farms.

[6] In fact, Peru recently sent thousands of potato seeds to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault near the Arctic Circle. Created as a failsafe gene bank for food crops in case of worldwide catastrophe, the “Doomsday Vault” was built to sustain all sorts of disaster from global warming, to nuclear warfare, asteroid strikes, and earthquakes.

Modjadji: the Rain Queen

Maselekwane, Masalanabo, Khetoane, Makoma, Mokope, Makobo: it’s not a recitation of a magic spell, nor a list of exotic and unpronounceable fruits. These six women all share the title of Modjadji Rain Queen, and reigned during their time over the South African tribe of Balobedu. 

A universal difficulty in this world is finding a way to defuse conflict and maintain peace. First world human societies use law forces and penal systems; bonobos turn potentially rough situations into acts of coitus; and a rather unknown tribe in the Limpopo Province of South Africa unite under a common leader to reroute violence into mutual respect. Since the 16^th century, the Balobedu have recognized a matrilineal line of leaders which they call the Rain Queen Modjadji. Believed to have mystical powers of rain calling, the Balobedu Rain Queen has reduced both internal opposition and outside aggression through the indispensable properties of her presumed abilities.

Although now a reason for camaraderie, the beginnings of the Rain Queen tradition arose from scandal and death. Prior to the formation of the Balobedu Kingdom, a king of the Monomotapa region of Zimbabwe had a daughter, Dzugundini. Disgraced by impregnation by her brother, Dzugundini fled the village to the present day Balobedu Kingdom. There, she established a village under a male leader but soon, violence and unrest broke out between families. The male leader impregnated his own daughter to cease male dominance and begin a matrilineal tradition. The resulting child was born a daughter and the first Rain Queen Modjadji.

The daily life of the Rain Queen is one of seclusion. She is expected to remain in relative solitude within her royal compound where she utilizes her abilities to practice rain making. She has a Royal Council, which consists of chiefs from throughout the kingdom. The Royal Council selects the Rain Queen’s sexual partners, although she will not marry in the traditional sense. Instead, the Rain Queen will be given many wives from villages throughout her kingdom to serve her. This ritual bride giving is a way for the villages to show loyalty to the Queen.

Until intercession by Christian missionaries, it was custom for the reigning Rain Queen to commit ritual suicide once her oldest daughter and rightful heir was ready to take the throne. This practice died out with the third Rain Queen who died of old age. Still, several other traditions have remained, such as the beating of sacred drums, and barefooted prostration before the Queen.

Other factors are putting a strain on even these remaining traditions. The last Rain Queen, Makobo Modjadji VI, was very much a child of modern times. She is said to have enjoyed wearing T-shirts and blue jeans, and talking on her cell phone. Her young death in 2005 was marked by skepticism of foul play. One daughter succeeds her, but is considered unfit by the Royal Council to become the next Queen, as she was born from a commoner. The only other potential heiress is the daughter of Makobo Modjadji VI’s brother, who, as a descendant of the royal Modjadji line, is preferred by the Council. Controversy over this situation has yet to conclude, and it is feared that the reign of the Balobedu Rain Queens may be at its end. 

The Chatoyant Chameleon

Chameleons, with their unique ability to change color according to their surroundings, have long been considered masters of camouflage by public and scientific communities alike. But the chameleon’s fickle complexion has been found to have a much wider array of purposes.

Chameleons possess specialized cells in their skin that allow them to change color in response to environmental change. These pigment-bearing cells respond to a chameleon’s hormonal signals to alter the placement of melanin within the cell. Clumping the melanin together will cause the chameleon to appear lighter in color; distributing the melanin throughout the cell will cause the chameleon to appear darker. If this were the only mechanism at work, however, it would follow that chameleons had the ability to only darken or lighten their coloration.

In order to produce the full spectrum of hues at the chameleon’s disposal, these creatures are able to proportion the primary colors much like an artist would to create more advanced colors. Under their top layer of translucent skin, chameleon skin cells contain chromatophores, another type of pigmented cell. Chromatophores with yellow and red pigment are found among the top layers, while lower layer chromatophores contain blue or white pigment. As with melanin, these cells are hormone-signaled, and by enlarging or shrinking, change the outward appearance of a chameleon’s skin.

An understanding of the chameleon’s chatoyancy, however, does not disclose its evolutionary purpose. A study led by Devi Stuart-Fox of the University of Melbourne, gave results that suggest something contradictory to widespread textbook knowledge: chameleons evolved their color-changing abilities to stick out rather than blend in. If camouflage was the major evolutionary factor, then chameleon species with the most diverse habitat backgrounds would have the widest ability of skin coloration. But Stuart-Fox found, “no relationship between how much [chameleons] change color and the variety of backgrounds they had to match.” Rather, social communication seemed to be the driving evolutionary factor.

By changing the patterns of colors in their skin, chameleons are able to communicate with each other. Male chameleons will proclaim dominance by flashing bright colors, while submission is denoted by drab browns and grays. Females may change their coloration to reject or accept potential mates, or to communicate that they are pregnant. Such color alterations can happen quickly, in a matter of seconds, and the risk of predator response is minimal. The modern chameleon may also use this ability to lighten his skin on a bright day. Lighter colors reflect more sunlight and are one way for a cool chameleon to beat the heat.